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Radiocarbon dating is one of the best known archaeological dating techniques available to scientists, and the many people in the general public have at least heard of it. But there are many misconceptions about how radiocarbon works and how reliable a technique it is.
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Radiocarbon dating was invented in the 1950s by the American chemist Willard F. Libby and a few of his students at the University of Chicago: in 1960, he won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention. It was the first absolute scientific method ever invented: that is to say, the technique was the first to allow a researcher to determine how long ago an organic object died, whether it is in context or not. Shy of a date stamp on an object, it is still the best and most accurate of dating techniques devised.
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How Does Radiocarbon Work?
All living things exchange the gas Carbon 14 (C14) with the atmosphere around them — animals and plants exchange Carbon 14 with the atmosphere, fish and corals exchange carbon with dissolved C14 in the water. Throughout the life of an animal or plant, the amount of C14 is perfectly balanced with that of its surroundings. When an organism dies, that equilibrium is broken. The C14 in a dead organism slowly decays at a known rate: its 'half life'.
The half-life of an isotope like C14 is the time it takes for half of it to decay away: in C14, every 5,730 years, half of it is gone. So, if you measure the amount of C14 in a dead organism, you can figure out how long ago it stopped exchanging carbon with its atmosphere. Given relatively pristine circumstances, a radiocarbon lab can measure the amount of radiocarbon accurately in a dead organism for as long as 50,000 years ago; after that, there's not enough C14 left to measure.
Tree Rings and Radiocarbon
There is a problem, however. Carbon in the atmosphere fluctuates with the strength of earth's magnetic field and solar activity. You have to know what the atmospheric carbon level (the radiocarbon 'reservoir') was like at the time of an organism's death, in order to be able to calculate how much time has passed since the organism died. What you need is a ruler, a reliable map to the reservoir: in other words, an organic set of objects that you can securely pin a date on, measure its C14 content and thus establish the baseline reservoir in a given year.
Fortunately, we do have an organic object that tracks carbon in the atmosphere on a yearly basis: tree rings. Trees maintain carbon 14 equilibrium in their growth rings — and trees produce a ring for every year they are alive. Although we don't have any 50,000-year-old trees, we do have overlapping tree ring sets back to 12,594 years. So, in other words, we have a pretty solid way to calibrate raw radiocarbon dates for the most recent 12,594 years of our planet's past.
But before that, only fragmentary data is available, making it very difficult to definitively date anything older than 13,000 years. Reliable estimates are possible, but with large +/- factors.
The Search for Calibrations
As you might imagine, scientists have been attempting to discover other organic objects that can be dated securely steadily since Libby's discovery. Other organic data sets examined have included varves (layers in sedimentary rock which were laid down annually and contain organic materials, deep ocean corals, speleothems (cave deposits), and volcanic tephras; but there are problems with each of these methods. Cave deposits and varves have the potential to include old soil carbon, and there are as-yet unresolved issues with fluctuating amounts of C14 in ocean corals.
Beginning in the 1990s, a coalition of researchers led by Paula J. Reimer of the CHRONO Centre for Climate, the Environment and Chronology, at Queen's University Belfast, began building an extensive dataset and calibration tool that they first called CALIB. Since that time, CALIB, now renamed IntCal, has been refined several times. IntCal combines and reinforces data from tree-rings, ice-cores, tephra, corals, and speleothems to come up with a significantly improved calibration set for c14 dates between 12,000 and 50,000 years ago. The latest curves were ratified at the 21st International Radiocarbon Conference in July of 2012.
Lake Suigetsu, Japan
Within the last few years, a new potential source for further refining radiocarbon curves is Lake Suigetsu in Japan. Lake Suigetsu's annually formed sediments hold detailed information about environmental changes over the past 50,000 years, which radiocarbon specialist PJ Reimer believes will be as good as, and perhaps better than, samples cores from the Greenland Ice Sheet.
Researchers Bronk-Ramsay et al. report 808 AMS dates based on sediment varves measured by three different radiocarbon laboratories. The dates and corresponding environmental changes promise to make direct correlations between other key climate records, allowing researchers such as Reimer to finely calibrate radiocarbon dates between 12,500 to the practical limit of c14 dating of 52,800.
Constants and Limits
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Reimer and colleagues point out that IntCal13 is just the latest in calibration sets, and further refinements are to be expected. For example, in IntCal09's calibration, they discovered evidence that during the Younger Dryas (12,550-12,900 cal BP), there was a shutdown or at least a steep reduction of the North Atlantic Deep Water formation, which was surely a reflection of climate change; they had to throw out data for that period from the North Atlantic and use a different dataset. This should yield interesting results going forward.
Sources
- Bronk Ramsey C, Staff RA, Bryant CL, Brock F, Kitagawa H, Van der Plicht J, Schlolaut G, Marshall MH, Brauer A, Lamb HF et al. 2012. A complete terrestrial radiocarbon record for 11.2 to 52.8 kyr B.P. Science 338:370-374.
- Reimer PJ. 2012. Atmospheric science. Refining the radiocarbon time scale. Science 338(6105):337-338.
- Reimer PJ, Bard E, Bayliss A, Beck JW, Blackwell PG, Bronk Ramsey C, Buck CE, Cheng H, Edwards RL, Friedrich M et al. . 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.
- Reimer P, Baillie M, Bard E, Bayliss A, Beck J, Blackwell PG, Bronk Ramsey C, Buck C, Burr G, Edwards R et al. 2009. IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0-50,000 years cal BP.Radiocarbon 51(4):1111-1150.
- Stuiver M, and Reimer PJ. 1993. Extended C14 data base and revised Calib 3.0 c14 age calibration program. Radiocarbon 35(1):215-230.
ONLINE dating and social media is great, right? You can meet someone new without leaving your bed, while sitting on the loo or even when on another date.
But what about when someone isn't who they say they are? Here's what you need to know about catfishing.
What is Catfishing?
'Catfishing' is when someone creates fake profiles on social media sites to trick people into thinking they are somebody else.
It is most common on social media and dating apps like Tinder.
They make up life stories and use photographs of unsuspecting victims to create fake identities. Catfishers add life experiences, jobs, friends and photographs to the fake accounts.
This can be seen in cases such as young mum Chloe Davis, 20, who began receiving suggestive text messages from men who believed they had chatted with her on Plenty of Fish after someone set up a fake profile in her name.
Where did the term Catfish come from?
The term was first used in the 2010 documentary 'Catfish' - in which Nev Schulman discovered the gorgeous woman he fell in love with online was a middle-aged, married mum.
Schulman fell in love with 'Megan' - but also spoke to her mum Angela, half-sister Abby and stepdad Vince online.
At the end of the documentary Schulman discovers 'Megan' was a fake account run by Angela using a family friend's photos.
After becoming suspicious Schulman drives to 'Megan's' address - and finds Angela, who admits she was behind the account all along.
At the end he tells a story about how live cod were shipped along with catfish to keep the cod active and ensure the quality of the fish.
He uses the metaphor to describe Angela, saying there are always 'catfishes' in our lives who keep us alert, active and on our toes.
Schulman later turned the documentary into the 'Catfish' TV show, where he helps others solve their online relationship mysteries.
What are so high profile examples of catfishing?
There are two types of victims - the people who are duped into trusting someone with a false identity, and those who have their personal photos stolen and used by someone that isn't them.
Here are some of the most recent cases of catfishing:
- In August 2016, a love-struck man was gullible enough to believe he was dating Katy Perry.
- In February 2017, a catfish victim discovered someone was using her pictures online... and she was shocked when she realised how they'd avoided detection.
- In March 2017, a flight attendant revealed her horror at a ‘Catfish’ Facebook account using her photos to trick hundreds of men into sending nude snaps.
- In April 2017, selfie queen and former MP's wife Karen Danczuk revealed how fraudsters keep stealing her famous pictures for fake Facebook, Twitter and dating profiles.
- And in July 2017, Katie Price's ex-boyfriend was forced to hire a private detective after his photos were used on 40 fake social media profiles to lure women. Matt Peacock, 34, was left appalled after discovering some of the victims had been pressured into sending explicit photos and videos of themselves to the perpetrators.
Why do people make fake accounts?
The fake accounts are often used to spark up online relationships.
Unknowing victims will fall in love with women or men they meet online - with no idea the person behind the screen is someone completely different.
Catfishers use the accounts to give off a persona they wish they had - with plenty of friends, photos and attractive qualities.
At the moment, catfishing is not illegal in the UK, but there are many campaigns to make it against the law.
How do I know if I'm being catfished?
Potential victims always have similar concerns.
These include:
- Why does he refuse to video chat?
- Why is she never able to meet in person?
- Why does it seem just to good to be true?
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If you are in an online relationship and think any of the above - it could be happening to you.